Safety of Imported Milk Powder: Contaminant Profiles, Detection Methods, and Regulatory Frameworks with Special Reference to Sri Lanka

Author

Bandara ADM, Abeweera GGPM, Kumari WMPW

Abstract

 Milk powder is a globally traded dairy commodity of critical nutritional and economic importance, particularly in countries such as Sri Lanka where domestic dairy production is insufficient to meet consumer demand. However, imported milk powder is susceptible to a wide spectrum of contaminants including microbial pathogens (Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Cronobacter sakazakii), chemical adulterants (melamine, urea, starch), heavy metals (lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury), mycotoxins (aflatoxin M1), antibiotic residues, and physical foreign matter, each posing distinct risks to public health. This review comprehensively examines the nature and classification of contaminants found in imported milk powder, the analytical detection technologies employed for their identification, and the regulatory and preventive frameworks relevant to Sri Lanka and international practice. Landmark contamination incidents including the 2008 Chinese melamine scandal, the 1955 Japanese arsenic poisoning, and Sri Lanka-specific episodes involving dicyandiamide and microbial adulterants are analysed to contextualise systemic vulnerabilities. Advanced detection methods including High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIR) are reviewed in terms of sensitivity, applicability, and limitations. Sri Lanka's regulatory architecture under the Food Act No. 26 of 1980, Sri Lanka Standards Institution (SLSI) standards, and Consumer Affairs Authority (CAA) mandates is critically evaluated. The review concludes with evidence-based recommendations to strengthen import controls, laboratory capacity, and public awareness to safeguard food safety.

Keywords

milk powder contamination; food safety; melamine adulteration; detection methods; Sri Lanka dairy regulation; mycotoxins

Full Text:

Download Paper PDF

References

Abdelkhalek, A., Elsherbini, M., Eletriby, D., & Sadak, A. (2016). Quality assessment of imported powder milk at Mansoura city, Egypt. Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research, 3(1), 75–78. https://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2016.c134

Abedini, R., Jahed Khaniki, G., Molaee Aghaee, E., Sadighara, P., Nazmara, S., Akbari-Adergani, B., & Naderi, M. (2021). Determination of melamine contamination in chocolates containing powdered milk by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, 19(1), 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-021-00613-4

Bogahawatte, C., & Herath, J. (2006). Factors affecting import shares of powdered milk and other milk products and their implications in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan Journal of Agricultural Economics, 8, 21–30.

Cattaneo, T. M., & Holroyd, S. E. (2013). The use of near infrared spectroscopy for determination of adulteration and contamination in milk and milk powder: Updating knowledge. Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy, 21(5), 341–349. https://doi.org/10.1255/jnirs.1055

Codex Alimentarius Commission. (2011). Codex general standard for contaminants and toxins in food and feed (CODEX STAN 193-1995). FAO/WHO.

de Boer, E., Beumer, R. R., & van Doorne, H. (2010). Microbiological analysis of milk powder and infant formulas in the Netherlands. Food Microbiology, 27(6), 841–848.

Filazi, A., Yurdun, T., & Senyuva, H. Z. (2012). Detection of melamine in milk and milk products by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Food Chemistry, 130(1), 189–193.

Food and Agriculture Organization. (2013). Milk and dairy products in human nutrition. FAO.

Geng, Y., Xu, J., Quander, K., & Chen, J. (2020). Foodborne illness outbreaks from contaminated dairy products in developing countries: A global review. Food Reviews International, 36(3), 249–270.

Gurbuz, O., Gurses, M., & Ozcan, M. M. (2018). Determination of heavy metals in various types of milk powder by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 66, 113–119.

Handford, C. E., Campbell, K., & Elliott, C. T. (2016). Impacts of milk fraud on food safety and nutrition with special emphasis on developing countries. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 15(1), 130–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12181

He, X., & Bhatt, P. (2018). Microbial contamination and prevention in powdered dairy products: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 58(3), 380–394.

International Dairy Federation. (2018). The world dairy situation 2018. Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation, 494.

Jia, X., Huang, J., Luan, H., Rozelle, S., & Swinnen, J. (2012). China's milk scandal, government policy and production decisions of dairy farmers: The case of Greater Beijing. Food Policy, 37(4), 390–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.03.001

Jokerst, J. C., Emory, J. M., & Henry, C. S. (2012). Advances in microfluidics for environmental analysis. Analyst, 137(1), 24–34.

Kang, W., Zheng, N., & Zhao, S. (2021). Risk assessment of heavy metals in raw milk collected from different regions of China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 207, 111225.

Kim, D. H., Subramanian, P., & Kim, B. Y. (2017). Adulteration detection in infant formula using LC-MS/MS. Food Chemistry, 224, 363–369.

Lutter, P., Savoy-Perroud, M. C., Campos-Gimenez, E., Meyer, L., Goldmann, T., Bertholet, M. C., Mottier, P., Desmarchelier, A., Monard, F., Perrin, C., & Robert, F. (2011). Screening and confirmatory methods for the determination of melamine in cows milk and milk-based powdered infant formula: Validation and proficiency-tests of ELISA, HPLC-UV, GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. Food Control, 22(6), 903–913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.11.019

Mendis, S., & Edirisinghe, J. (2014). Milk powder imports and government policy: The case of Sri Lanka. Journal of Agriculture Economics and Rural Development, 2(3), 86–91.

Mititelu, M., Hincu, L., Ozon, E. A., Baconi, D. L., Paunica, I., & Balalau, O. D. (2021). Analysis of potentially toxic contaminants in milk powder. Journal of Mind and Medical Sciences, 8(2), 237–244.

Mukherjee, S., & Bhattacharya, S. (2019). Detection and quantification of urea as adulterant in milk using physicochemical tests. Food Chemistry, 278, 241–247.

Ndlovu, Z., Mubaiwa, J., & Chagwena, D. (2016). Food adulteration in sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for nutrition and food safety. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 16(1), 10578–10592.

Niknejad, F., Zarei, M., Bahrami, A., & Mirlohi, M. (2017). Antibiotic residues in commercial dairy products in Iran. Food Control, 72, 183–186.

Pei, X., Tandon, A., Alldrick, A., Giorgi, L., Huang, W., & Yang, R. (2011). The China melamine milk scandal and its implications for food safety regulation. Food Policy, 36(3), 412–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2011.03.008

Pizzoferrato, L., Manzi, P., Marconi, S., & Mori, F. (2014). Analytical methods for the detection of food fraud. Food Analytical Methods, 7(6), 1304–1313.

Ratnayake, S., Reid, M., Hunter, D., Larder, N., Silva, R., Kadupitiya, H., Pushpakumara, G., Borelli, T., Mendonce, S., Liyanage, A., & Samarasinghe, G. (2023). Exploring social-ecological systems for mainstreaming neglected and underutilised plant foods. In Neglected plant foods of South Asia (pp. 171–225). Springer International Publishing.

Rota, M. C., Caporali, M. G., Bella, A., & Rizzo, C. (2009). Epidemiology of foodborne illnesses attributable to dairy products in Italy. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 130(1), 78–86.

Saltmarsh, M. (Ed.). (2015). Essential guide to food additives (4th ed.). Royal Society of Chemistry.

Shimelis, T., Urga, K., & Tasew, G. (2015). Bacteriological and physicochemical properties of milk powder marketed in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, 29(1), 3–10.

Singh, P., & Wani, A. A. (2019). Detection technologies for food adulteration: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 59(3), 400–412.

Sri Lanka Standards Institution. (2015). Specification for milk powder (SLS 731:2015). SLSI.

Sun, Y., Dong, W., Zhang, J., & Wang, X. (2020). GC-MS-based metabolite profiling of milk powder for authenticity and quality assessment. Food Chemistry, 309, 125720.

Tamminga, S., Blok, W. J., & Melse-Boonstra, A. (2007). Nutritional quality and safety of dairy products in global trade. Livestock Science, 109(1–3), 173–176.

Tripathy, S., Shaik, J., & Kumar, A. (2018). Food safety regulatory standards in South Asian nations: Challenges and opportunities. Food Control, 91, 162–171.

United Nations Codex Alimentarius. (2020). Guidelines for the risk analysis of foodborne antimicrobial resistance. FAO/WHO.

Van der Fels-Klerx, H. J., Liu, Y., & Battilani, P. (2016). Modelling climate change impacts on mycotoxin contamination. World Mycotoxin Journal, 9(5), 717–726.

Wang, X., Li, Z., Wang, X., Liu, Y., & Zhao, S. (2017). Rapid detection of Cronobacter sakazakii and Salmonella spp. in powdered infant formula using multiplex PCR. Food Control, 72, 27–34.

World Health Organization. (2006). Five keys to safer food manual. WHO Press.

World Health Organization. (2019). WHO estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases. WHO Press.

Ye, Z., Zhao, Y., Ma, W., & Li, Y. (2019). Occurrence and risk assessment of mycotoxins in milk and dairy products in China. Food Control, 99, 87–93.

Zakaria, A. M., Ombarak, R. A., & ElKamshishy, M. M. (2018). Incidence of some food-borne pathogens, heavy metal residues and aflatoxin M1 in imported skimmed milk powder. Food and Nutrition: Open Access, 1(1), 107.

Zhang, L., Ye, L., Xiang, P., & Zheng, L. (2008). Toxicological profiles of suspicious elements in victims of the melamine-contaminated milk incident in China. Journal of Public Health, 31(2), 189–196.

 

 

Share your valuable work from Social Media Buttons