Expanding Horizons of Article 21: Judicial Interpretation of Right to Life and Personal Liberty in India

Author

Jyoti Rani, Dr. Nilam Sihag


Abstract

 Article 21 of Indian Constitution ensures life and personal liberty from deprivation except in accordance with procedure established by law. This paper studies how Supreme Court of India has developed meaning of above provision in a manner not limited to mere physical existence or immunity from detention. The paper adopts a doctrinal approach, together with transparent content analysis of ten significant Supreme Court judgments made between 1978 and 2022. Every judgment is coded based on primary rights area covered as well as whether it involves main function of restraining state actions or requiring state to act. There is one procedural-liberty judgment, one foundational dignity judgment, three socioeconomic rights judgments and five autonomy judgments in sample. Four judgments express a positive duty while six define either a restraint, recognition or decisional freedom. The analysis shows that scope of Article 21 rights has been extended through two interrelated avenues: procedural fairness and substantive conditions for a life of dignity.


Keywords

Article 21; right to life; personal liberty; Supreme Court of India; dignity; empirical legal study.



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References


  1. Constitutional Text

Constitution of India, arts. 14, 19, 21, 21A, 38 and 47.

  1. Cases and primary judicial sources

Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, (1978) 1 SCC 248. Fair-procedure holding discussed in Supreme Court judgment: https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2016/22533/22533_2016_Judgement_17-Jan-2019.pdf

Francis Coralie Mullin v. Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi, (1981) 1 SCC 608. Dignity holding reproduced in Supreme Court judgment: https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2005/9123/9123_2005_Judgement_09-Mar-2018.pdf

Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation, (1985) 3 SCC 545. Livelihood holding discussed in Supreme Court judgment: https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2014/41129/41129_2014_13_1501_60392_Judgement_24-Mar-2025.pdf

Unni Krishnan, J.P. v. State of Andhra Pradesh, (1993) 1 SCC 645.

Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v. State of West Bengal, (1996) 4 SCC 37. Holding discussed in Supreme Court judgment: https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2022/21815/21815_2022_2_1501_38628_Judgement_29-Sep-2022.pdf

National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India, (2014) 5 SCC 438. Holding discussed in Supreme Court judgment: https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2012/35071/35071_2012_Judgement_24-Aug-2017.pdf

Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India, (2017) 10 SCC 1. Supreme Court judgment: https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2012/35071/35071_2012_Judgement_24-Aug-2017.pdf

Common Cause v. Union of India, (2018) 5 SCC 1. Holding discussed in Supreme Court judgment: https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2025/60980/60980_2025_7_1501_69246_Judgement_11-Mar-2026.pdf

Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India, (2018) 10 SCC 1. Dignity and autonomy holding discussed in Supreme Court judgment: https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2023/51059/51059_2023_1_1502_56228_Judgement_03-Oct-2024.pdf

X v. Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, (2023) 9 SCC 433 (judgment dated 29 September 2022). Supreme Court judgment: https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2022/21815/21815_2022_2_1501_38628_Judgement_29-Sep-2022.pdf

 

 

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